Qualitative Research Methodology in Dissertations

Why Conduct Qualitative Research in Dissertation Studies?

While quantitative research has generally been deemed superior, qualitative research is equally important. Qualitative research is crucial in educational research as it addresses the “how” and “why” research questions and promotes a more in-depth understanding of experiences, phenomena and context (Lim, 2024). It allows researchers to ask questions that cannot be easily quantified to understand human experience and behavior. Researchers can also use qualitative research to generate hypotheses and further investigate and understand quantitative data. This information tool is designed to discuss basic concepts, definitions, terminology, and applications of qualitative research.

Qualitative Methodology Overview 

While it is understandable that quantitative research and numbers are generally not everyone’s cup of tea (a major reason to opt for qualitative methodology), qualitative research is vital. It can be structured as a standalone study that purely relies on qualitative data or as part of mixed-methods research that combines qualitative and quantitative data. Qualitative research is the study of the nature of phenomena and is particularly suitable for addressing why something is or is not observed, evaluating complex multi-component interventions, and concentrating on intervention enhancement (Kraus et al., 2022). 

The Qualitative and Quantitative Research Divide. Does it Exist?  

While qualitative and quantitative research are often pitted against each other, it is crucial to acknowledge that they are not necessarily incompatible. Instead, they can complement each other to enhance understanding. For example, qualitative research can provide valuable insights to enrich and expand the findings of quantitative analysis (Hendren et al., 2023). Consider a situation where quantitative analysis uncovers a correlation between length of stay and patient satisfaction levels; qualitative research can delve into the underlying reasons behind this correlation. Integrating both approaches can lead to a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. It is not novel for quantitative researchers to suggest the need to have their studies replicated in qualitative research to find out more about their numerical study findings.  

Photo by SAGE Perspectives

Research Paradigm 

Research paradigms encompass the assumptions, norms, and standards that form the basis of different research approaches. Essentially, they represent the “worldviews” that guide research (Paudel, 2024). It is important for both qualitative and quantitative researchers to recognize the paradigm within which they are operating because understanding the theoretical foundation of research paradigms enables researchers to comprehend the strengths and weaknesses of the approach being used and make necessary adjustments. Different paradigms are characterized by distinct ontologies and epistemologies. 

Ontology refers to the “assumptions about the nature of reality,” while epistemology refers to the “assumptions about the nature of knowledge” that shape researchers’ work (Gannon et al., 2022). It is crucial to grasp the ontological and epistemological principles of the research paradigm to fully comprehend the approach being utilized and the underlying assumptions. Furthermore, the researcher’s personal ontological and epistemological assumptions significantly influence the research process and the interpretation of research findings. A comprehensive discussion of the research paradigm should include an explanation of positivist, post-positivist, and constructivist philosophies.

Research Philosophy

Understanding the differences in assumptions that different philosophies and approaches to research have is crucial. The assumptions underlying the research tools a researcher selects not only provide the foundation for the assumptions the rest of the research will have but also significantly influence the entire research process, including the role of the researchers (Klaus et al., 2022; Lim, 2024). For instance, in positivist quantitative work, the researcher is typically seen as an ‘objective’ observer, whereas in postpositivist qualitative work, the researcher is considered an active participant in the research. Having a clear grasp of the philosophical underpinnings of the study enables researchers to make conscious decisions, comprehend the implications of their work and their role within the research, and critically reflect on their positionality and bias in relation to the research they are conducting. Discussed below are some of the most prominent philosophies when considering qualitative research. 

Positivism and Post-Positivism 

To gain a deeper understanding of qualitative research, it is important to explore the positivist and post-positivist frameworks. Positivism is a philosophical approach that advocates for applying the scientific method to both social and natural sciences (Maksimovic & Evtimov, 2023). It asserts that the methods used in natural sciences should also be applied to social sciences. Positivism is rooted in positivist ontology, a branch of metaphysics concerned with the nature of being, existence, and reality and the fundamental categories of beings and their relationships. It posits the existence of an objective reality that is independent of individual perception.

Quantitative research is closely aligned with positivist philosophy, as evidenced by its emphasis on causality, generalizability, and replicability concepts (Hays & McKibben, 2021). On the other hand, post-positivists argue that social reality cannot be fully explained but can be approximated. Qualitative researchers maintain that there are inherent limitations to applying the methods and procedures of natural sciences to the social world. Thus, postpositivist philosophy is often associated with qualitative research.

The distinction between positivist and post-positivist values in research becomes apparent when considering their respective approaches to hypothesis testing. Positivist philosophies emphasize the importance of making explicit, specific predictions and rigorously testing them through empirical observation (Hays & McKibben, 2021; Maksimovic & Evtimov, 2023). In contrast, postpositivist philosophies prioritize the development of a comprehensive theory based on a careful analysis of observations and evidence, aiming to construct a substantive framework that can account for the complexity of real-world phenomena.

Constructivism 

Within the realm of post-positivism, constructivism offers a thought-provoking perspective. Many researchers involved in postpositivist research also embrace constructivism, which posits that there is no objective external reality but rather, that reality is constructed. This theoretical lens emphasizes the dynamic and socially constructed nature of our world (Musa & Aldiabat, 2024). It suggests that individuals’ perspectives are shaped by their experiences, challenging the notion of a fixed, objective reality. Unlike positivist views, constructivism proposes that there is no single ‘objective’ reality. This perspective, known as ‘relativist’ ontology, suggests that reality and our world are dynamic and socially constructed. Consequently, qualitative scientific knowledge can be both inductive and deductive, offering researchers a new and intriguing perspective to explore.

Relativism 

Relativism is a philosophical concept that posits the absence of absolute truths or standards, emphasizing the contextual or subjective nature of truth and morality. It rejects the existence of a universal, objective truth and asserts that each viewpoint holds its own truth. Morality and culture are viewed as relative to class, historical time, or an individual’s beliefs, as well as to the context in which they are adopted and the attitudes or faculties of each individual or cultural group (Gannon et al., 2022). Qualitative research often aligns with the ontological perspective of relativism, aiming to explore how individuals derive meaning from their experiences, with the understanding that reality is confined to specific contexts. Reality is shaped by various perceptual frameworks, influenced by personal encounters and social dynamics, resulting in each individual possessing a unique reality. Relativism posits that realities are collaboratively formed, with ‘truths’ being subjective, fluid, and context-dependent, thereby situating knowledge within specific contexts. Moreover, it acknowledges the existence of multiple potentially contradictory truths, all valid, while recognizing that perceptions or truths may evolve with time.

Empiricism 

Empiricism is a philosophical approach that places great emphasis on the role of experience and evidence, particularly sensory experience, in the formation of ideas and knowledge. It is an epistemological view that highlights the significance of experience in shaping concepts and acquiring and justifying knowledge (DeRobertis, 2022). According to empiricism, knowledge primarily stems from sensory experience and observation rather than pure reason or speculation. In other words, we comprehend phenomena and objects in the world through our senses – seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, or smelling. Empiricists stress that sense experience is the key to understanding the world and argue that all meaningful concepts and knowledge claims must be rooted in experience.

Empirical experience can be either direct, such as through sensory perception, or indirect, such as through experimentation or observation of empirical data. Empiricism and qualitative research share common ground in their focus on the importance of observation, experience, and evidence in the pursuit of knowledge (Radder, 2021). For example, in qualitative research investigating teachers’ practices, direct sensory experiences of observing in the classroom can provide valuable insights into their teaching methods, interactions with students, and learning outcomes. Thus, the principles of empiricism align with the process of conducting qualitative research to understand teachers’ practices through direct observation. By prioritizing sensory experience that is translated into empirical data, researchers can gain valuable insights into the complex dynamics of teaching and learning in the real-world educational setting

Rationalism 

Rationalism is a philosophical school of thought that posits reason as the foremost source and method of obtaining knowledge and comprehending the world. In contrast to empiricism, which stresses sensory experience and observation, rationalism maintains that certain truths and knowledge can be apprehended through reason alone, independent of experience (Schafer, 2023). Rationalists argue that the mind contains innate ideas or principles, which can be uncovered through rational reflection and deduction. They assert that certain mathematical principles, such as the concept of numbers, geometric shapes, and logical relationships, are inherent in the structure of the mind, not acquired through sensory experience. For example, our understanding of the concept of “two” is not derived from sensory experience but is an inherent cognitive capacity. If one were to study the development of moral reasoning in children, such a study would align with rationalist principles, as it investigates the presence of innate cognitive structures underlying moral understanding and decision-making rather than solely relying on the children’s sensory experiences.

Qualitative Research Design Approaches in Dissertation Studies

In the qualitative method, the processes of gathering and examining data, developing and adjusting theory, and expanding or refocusing the research questions occur simultaneously rather than sequentially. This active and interactive approach ensures that each process influences the others, contributing to a comprehensive model of qualitative research design (Lim, 2024). The researcher might have to reconsider or modify any design choices during the study in response to new developments. This simultaneous nature of qualitative research design contrasts the more linear and rigid nature of quantitative research. It is important to emphasize that this does not imply a lack of organization or plan. 

Most qualitative projects are pre-planned, at least in terms of a research protocol equivalent, outlining the purpose (aims and objectives), significance (why this is important), and methodology (theoretical basis, design, methods, and analysis) (Kraus et al., 2022). This comprehensive nature of qualitative research design ensures a thorough and detailed exploration of the research topic. The research question or questions will influence the design to be used for a qualitative study. Also, researchers from different disciplines use different qualitative research designs depending on the study’s purpose. The primary qualitative study designs discussed here include phenomenology, narrative research, grounded theory, ethnography, case study, and action research.

1. 1. Phenomenology 

The study of experience from an individual’s perspective, without assuming or perceiving things in the usual way, is the focus of phenomenology. Phenomenological approaches highlight the significance of personal perspective and interpretation. Phenomenology is effective for comprehending subjective experiences, gaining insights into people’s motivations and actions, and cutting through commonly held assumptions and traditional knowledge. However, what truly sets phenomenology apart is its ability to provide a deep understanding of the lived experiences of a phenomenon for multiple individuals, enlightening researchers and inspiring further exploration (Lichtman, 2023). Phenomenological approaches can be used to examine individual cases or specific samples. Various methods for collecting data can be employed in research based on phenomenology, such as interviews, conversations, participant observation, action research, focus group meetings, and analysis of personal texts. It is important to note that phenomenological research produces a substantial amount of data for analysis. While a narrative approach would delve into the life of a single individual, a phenomenological study elucidates the meaning of the lived experiences of a phenomenon for multiple individuals.

Philosophical Assumptions in Phenomenology 

Phenomenology is a qualitative research method that is highly inductive in nature. Its philosophical foundations are rooted in the exploration of individuals’ lived experiences, with an emphasis on the conscious nature of these experiences. The primary focus of phenomenological research is to construct detailed descriptions of the essential aspects of these experiences, rather than providing explanations or analytical interpretations (Urcia, 2021).

Types of Qualitative Phenomenological Approaches 

There are different types of phenomenological approaches. Various scholars and authors are attributed to the different phenomenology techniques. The phenomenological approaches include: descriptive-transcendental as propounded by Husserl and Giorgi, interpretive/hermeneutic as postulated by Heidegger, Gadamer, and Jen-Luc Nancy, descriptive-hermeneutic attributed to (van Manen), empirical-transcendental tabled by Moustakas, and existential as posited by Sarte, Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty. The highlighted phenomenological qualitative techniques inform their unique thematic analyses (Creswell & Poth, 2018). 

2. 2. Narrative Research

Narrative inquiry commences with the lived and recounted stories of individuals, expressed through spoken or written accounts of events and actions in chronological order. Narrative research involves connecting a series of events from one or a few individuals to form a coherent narrative (Creswell & Poth, 2018). This process includes conducting comprehensive interviews, examining documents, and identifying recurring patterns to understand how an individual’s story reflects broader life influences. Interviews are often conducted over extended periods, spanning weeks, months, or even years, but the final narrative does not have to follow a chronological sequence. Instead, it can be presented as a thematically organized story that reconciles conflicting accounts and highlights tensions and challenges, which can be opportunities for innovation. Examples of this approach include biographical studies, autobiographies, and life stories. 

3. 3. Grounded Theory 

Phenomenology seeks to elucidate themes and delineate the significance of individuals’ lived experiences, while grounded theory aims to surpass mere description and generate or discern a theory—an abstract analytical framework of a process or interaction informed by the perspectives of numerous participants. This qualitative approach was formulated by Glaser and Strauss in 1967. Subsequent grounded theorists, such as Clarke, who draws on postmodern viewpoints, and Charmaz, who adopts a constructivist approach, have also contributed to its development. Its primary objective is to formulate theories concerning social phenomena, thereby attaining a deeper level of comprehension that is “grounded” in or derived from a methodical analysis of data. Grounded theory is suitable when examining social interactions or experiences to explicate a process rather than to test or validate an existing theory (Urcia, 2021). Instead, the theory emerges through a meticulous and thorough analysis of the data.

Contribution by Key Scholars of Grounded Theory 

Glaser’s traditional guidelines for grounded theory are consistent with a realist ontology and an objectivist epistemology. His method, positioned at the far end of the post-positivist paradigm, is built on the foundational premise that truth emerges from the data collected. This highlights the crucial role of researchers as impartial observers. Glaser contended that pre-existing beliefs, including the researcher’s knowledge and experiences, could influence the credibility of data results, thereby emphasizing the importance of their objectivity (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).

Strauss and Corbin developed grounded theory with a relativist perspective that highlights the presence of multiple realities. They advanced grounded theory from Glaser’s traditional paradigm, adopting an epistemological approach of subjectivism, which asserts that researchers and participants jointly construct meanings. They argued that being completely objective observers is impossible (Rieger, 2019). Based on this belief, Strauss and Corbin’s grounded theory and ontological and epistemological positions place their adaptation within the interpretive paradigm.

Kathy Charmaz, who studied under Glaser and Strauss, enhanced interpretive grounded theory by adopting a constructivist perspective. Charmaz provided practical and adaptable guidelines for implementing constructivist versions of grounded theory. From her viewpoint, the prior knowledge researchers possess about data will lead to a detailed and contextual understanding through further engagement with research participants. Constructivist grounded theory fosters co-constructed knowledge, where the researchers’ disciplinary viewpoints actively contribute to developing theoretical insights alongside participants (Charmaz, 2014).

Primary Features of a Grounded Theory 

The main characteristics of the grounded theory include its repetitive research structure, purposeful (theoretical) sampling, and rounds of simultaneous data collection and analysis, in which the analysis guides the next round of data collection. To align with this repetitive design, the sample is not predetermined but is deliberately chosen as the analysis progresses; participants play a crucial role, being selected based on their ability to support or question an emerging theory. As noteworthy issues are identified in the data, they are compared with other instances to identify similarities and differences, highlighting the importance of the participants in the research process. The strategy at the core of all forms of grounded theory entails constant comparative analysis. Strauss and Corbin (2015) stated that constant comparative analysis refers to an inductive analytical process of concurrent data collection while contrasting data, concepts, categories, and theoretical claims to produce knowledge. Another vital component of grounded theory is memo writing, which is also referred to as memoing. Memoing is the strategy of writing analytic ideas that are part of the analysis in developing a theory by elaborating, specifying, and formulating the processes behind the concepts of core categories (Cullen & Brennan, 2021).  

Pointers to Note about Grounded Theory Qualitative Research Design 

Even though the grounded theory was first proposed by Glaser and Strauss in 1967, several variations and interpretations that emerged from other scholars complicate its process, as each version has its unique processes and norms. It is important to be wary of this research design as it is often poorly done, and numerous supervisors and journals reject studies that claim to have taken the grounded theory design only to emerge that the presented research is not actually a grounded theory. 

4. 4. Ethnography 

When using a grounded theory approach, multiple individuals are examined to formulate a theory, but participants are not treated as a single unit. Ethnography involves studying a larger number of individuals and focusing on an entire cultural group as a single unit of analysis (Gertner et al., 2021). This qualitative method involves describing and interpreting the shared and learned patterns of values, behaviors, beliefs, and language within a cultural-sharing group. Ethnography takes various forms, such as confessional, life history, autoethnography, feminist ethnography, ethnographic novels, visual ethnography through photography and video, and electronic media. 

In ethnography, researchers immerse themselves in the environment of the target participants to gain an understanding of their goals, cultures, challenges, motivations, and emerging themes. This approach has its roots in cultural anthropology, where researchers may spend years immersing themselves in a culture (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Through the use of multiple data collection methods, including observations, interviews, and documentary data, ethnographic research provides a qualitative approach that can yield detailed and comprehensive accounts of various social phenomena, such as actions, behavior, interactions, and beliefs. Instead of relying solely on interviews or surveys, researchers gain firsthand experience of the environment, sometimes taking on the role of a “participant observer,” which allows them to gather empirical insights into social practices that are typically not visible to the public.

5. 5. Case Study  

A group focused on sharing cultures in the field of ethnography can be viewed as a case, but its goal is to understand how the culture operates rather than focusing on specific instances within a defined system. According to Creswell, case study research is an approach where the researcher examines a defined system (a case) or multiple defined systems (cases) over time through thorough and comprehensive data collection using multiple sources of information and then presents a description of the case and themes based on the case (Priya, 2021). Another influential scholar, Yin (2014), defines the case study research method as an empirical investigation that explores a current phenomenon within its real-life context when the boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not clearly evident and multiple sources of evidence are utilized. 

The case study method enables a researcher to carefully analyze the data within a specific setting, such as a small geographical area or a very limited number of individuals as the subjects of study. There are three types of case studies based on intent: single instrumental, collective or multiple, and intrinsic case studies. Case studies examine and scrutinize current real-life phenomena through detailed analysis of the context of a limited number of events or conditions and their interconnections. A case study requires a thorough understanding of various types of data sources. Case studies can be explanatory, exploratory, or descriptive of an event, and the design of a case study can be very open or more structured (Priya, 2021). Case studies are a valuable approach that aims to showcase the complexities of real-life situations. While the five methods generally use similar data collection techniques (observation, interviews, and reviewing text—see below), their study purposes and objectives set them apart.

6. 6. Action Research 

The concept of action research originated in the early 20th century, drawing on the ideas of John Dewey’s pragmatism and Kurt Lewin’s field theory. Dewey’s support for experiential learning and Lewin’s focus on understanding individuals in their social environments provided a foundation for an approach that integrates research and practice to foster knowledge creation and social transformation (Cornish et al., 2023). Action research operates on the belief that social issues cannot be fully grasped without efforts to change them; therefore, research should extend beyond mere fact-finding to include an action element that promotes positive change. In this sense, action research represents a participatory and flexible method, where research is conducted collaboratively with communities rather than on them. The implementation of action research involves a cycle of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. This cyclical process fosters a dynamic system where change can be both enacted and analyzed in real-time (Levitt et al., 2021). The approach is purposeful, reflective, and adaptable, aiming to produce change based on evidence and reflective learning.